讲座中的题材虽然广泛，但是所用词汇均在大纲范围之内，不出现难度极大的生词与难词。而且在材料中有很多表示语篇内句子之间关系的词汇，可以将这些词汇归为两类：

1）表示时间顺序、方位关系、列举与例证、引申与转折、推论与归纳、原因与结果等等逻辑概念的过渡词语。这类词语通常是一些连词和连接性副词，例如：afterwards, later, then, nearby, next to, firstly, secondly, finally, next, last, and besides, besides, furthermore, moreover, likewise, otherwise, similarly, but, however, nevertheless, though, because, for, therefore, hence, accordingly, consequently, thus等。也可以是一些介词词组、非限定分句、无动词分句和限定分句，例如：since then, on the right/left, to the east/west/north/south, for example/instance, in other words, on the other hand, on the contrary, for all that, for that reason, in addition, in the same way, in that case, in brief, in short, to sum up, as a result, if so, if not, in conclusion, what is more等。

2）通过关键词的重复，同义词、近义词、反义词的使用表达句子之间的承接关系。例如2006年试题中多次重复中心词“meaning”以加强听者的印象和帮助理解。

我们可以看到每一年的试题中都会出现大量的逻辑词汇，这里仅以2006年真题为例进行展示，请注意文中下划线的逻辑词汇：

good morning. in today’s lecture, we shall discuss what meaning is in literary works. when we read novels, poems etc., we invariably ask ourselves a question, that is what does the writer mean here. in other words, we are interested in finding out the meaning. but meaning is a difficult issue in literature. how do we know what a work of literature is supposed to mean? or what its real meaning is? i’d like to discuss three ways to explain what meaning is.

1.       meaning is what is intended by the author.

2.       meaning is created by and contained in the text itself. and

3.       meaning is created by the reader.

now let’s take a look at the first approach, that is meaning is what is intended by the author. does a work of literature mean what the author intended to mean? and if so, how can we tell? if all the evidence we have is the text itself and nothing else, we can only guess what ideas the author had according to our understanding of literature and the world. in order to have a better idea of what one particular author means in one of his works, i suggest that you do the following.

first, go to the library and read other works by the same author. second, get to know something about what sort of meanings seem to be common in literary works in that particular tradition and at that time. in other words, we need to find out what the literary trends were in those days. and last, get to know what were the cultural values and symbols of the time. i guess you can understand the author’s meaning much more clearly after you do the related background research.

now, let’s move on to the second approach to meaning, that is meaning is created by and contained in the text itself. does the meaning exist in the text? some scholars argue that the formal properties of the text like grammar, diction, uses of image and so on and so forth contain and produce the meaning so that any educated or competent reader will inevitably come to more or less the same interpretation as any other. as far as i am concerned, the meaning is not only to be found in the literary traditions and grammatical conventions of meaning, but also in the cultural codes which have been handed down from generation to generation. so when we and other readers including the author as well are set to come up with similar interpretations, that kind of agreement could be created by common traditions and conventions of usage, practice and interpretation. in other words, we have some kind of shared basis for the same interpretation. but that does not mean that readers agree on the meaning all the time. in different time periods with different cultural perspectives, including class, belief and world view, readers—i mean, competent readers—can arrive at different interpretations of texts. so meaning in the text is determined by how readers see it. it is not contained in the text in a fixed way.

now, the third approach to meaning, that is meaning is created by the reader. does the meaning then exist in the reader’s response? in a sense, this is inescapable. meaning exists only in so far as it means to someone. and literary works are written in order to awake sets of responses in the reader. this leads us to consider three essential issues. the first is, meaning is social, that is language and conventions work only a shared meaning and our way of viewing the world can exist only as shared or sharable. similarly, when we read a text, we are participating in social or cultural meaning. so response to a piece of literary work is not merely an individual thing, but is part of culture and history. second, meaning is contextual. if you change the context, you often change the meaning. and last, meaning requires reader competency. texts constructed as literature have their own ways of expressions, or sometimes we say styles. and the more we know of them, the more we can understand the text. consequently, there is, in regard to the question of meaning, the matter of reader competency, as it is called, the experience and knowledge of comprehending literary texts. your professors might insist that you practice and improve competency in reading, and they might also insist that you interpret meaning in the context of the whole work. but you may have to learn other competencies too. for instance, in reading mark rutland’s the untouchables, you might have to learn what the social structure of india was like at that time, what traditions of writing were in practice in india in the early 1930s, what political, cultural and personal influences mark rutland came under when constructing the imaginative world of the short novel.

ok! you may see that this idea that meaning requires competency in reading in fact bring us back to the historically situated understandings of an author and his works as we mentioned earlier in this lecture. to different conventions and ways of reading and writing, and to the point, that meaning requires a negotiation between cultural meanings across time, culture, class ect. as readers, you have in fact acquired a good deal of competency already, but you should acquire more. the essential point of this lecture is that meaning in literature is a phenomenon that is not easily located, that meaning is historical, social and arrived from the traditions of reading and thinking, and understanding of the world that you are educated about.

thank you for your attention.